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XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language
Version 1.5
May 27, 1985
by
David Michael Betz
114 Davenport Ave.
Manchester, NH 03103
(603) 625-4691 (home)
Copyright (c) 1985, by David Michael Betz
All Rights Reserved
Permission is granted for unrestricted non-commercial use
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 A NOTE FROM THE AUTHOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3 XLISP COMMAND LOOP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4 BREAK COMMAND LOOP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5 DATA TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6 THE EVALUATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
7 LEXICAL CONVENTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
8 OBJECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
8.1 THE 'Object' CLASS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
8.2 THE 'Class' CLASS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
9 SYMBOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
10 FUNCTION DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
10.1 EVALUATION FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
10.2 SYMBOL FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
10.3 PROPERTY LIST FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
10.4 LIST FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
10.5 DESTRUCTIVE LIST FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . 21
10.6 PREDICATE FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
10.7 CONTROL FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
10.8 LOOPING FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
10.9 THE PROGRAM FEATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
10.10 DEBUGGING AND ERROR HANDLING . . . . . . . . . . 27
10.11 ARITHMETIC FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
10.12 BITWISE LOGICAL FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . 30
10.13 RELATIONAL FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
10.14 STRING FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
10.15 INPUT/OUTPUT FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
10.16 FILE I/O FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
10.17 SYSTEM FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 3
INTRODUCTION
1 INTRODUCTION
XLISP is an experimental programming language combining some of the
features of LISP with an object oriented extension capability. It was
implemented to allow experimentation with object oriented programming
on small computers. There are currently implementations running on
the the VAX under VAX/VMS and Berkeley VAX/UNIX, on the 8088/8086
under CP/M-86 and MS-DOS, on the 68000 under CP/M-68K and on the
Macintosh. It is completely written in the programming language 'C'
and is easily extended with user written built-in functions and
classes. It is available in source form free of charge to
non-commercial users.
Many traditional LISP functions are built into XLISP. In addition,
XLISP defines the objects 'Object' and 'Class' as primitives.
'Object' is the only class that has no superclass and hence is the
root of the class heirarchy tree. 'Class' is the class of which all
classes are instances (it is the only object that is an instance of
itself).
This document is a brief description of XLISP. It assumes some
knowledge of LISP and some understanding of the concepts of
object-oriented programming.
A recommended text for learning LISP programming is the book "LISP" by
Winston and Horn and published by Addison Wesley. The first edition
of this book is based on MacLisp and the second edition is based on
Common Lisp. Future versions of XLISP will continue to migrate
towards compatibility with Common Lisp.
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 4
A NOTE FROM THE AUTHOR
2 A NOTE FROM THE AUTHOR
If you have any problems with XLISP, feel free to contact me for help
or advice. Please remember that since XLISP is available in source
form in a high level language, many users have been making versions
available on a variety of machines. If you call to report a problem
with a specific version, I may not be able to help you if that version
runs on a machine to which I don't have access. Please have the
version number of the version that you are running readily accessible
before calling me.
If you find a bug in XLISP, first try to fix the bug yourself using
the source code provided. If you are successful in fixing the bug,
send the bug report along with the fix to me. If you don't have
access to a C compiler or are unable to fix a bug, please send the bug
report to me and I'll try to fix it.
Any suggestions for improvements will be welcomed. Feel free to
extend the language in whatever way suits your needs. However, PLEASE
DO NOT RELEASE ENHANCED VERSIONS WITHOUT CHECKING WITH ME FIRST!! I
would like to be the clearing house for new features added to XLISP.
If you want to add features for your own personal use, go ahead. But,
if you want to distribute your enhanced version, contact me first.
Please remember that the goal of XLISP is to provide a language to
learn and experiment with LISP and object-oriented programming on
small computers. I don't want it to get so big that it requires
megabytes of memory to run.
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 5
XLISP COMMAND LOOP
3 XLISP COMMAND LOOP
When XLISP is started, it first tries to load "init.lsp" from the
default directory. It then loads any files named as parameters on the
command line (after appending ".lsp" to their names). It then issues
the following prompt:
>
This indicates that XLISP is waiting for an expression to be typed.
When an incomplete expression has been typed (one where the left and
right parens don't match) XLISP changes its prompt to:
n>
where n is an integer indicating how many levels of left parens remain
unclosed.
When a complete expression has been entered, XLISP attempts to
evaluate that expression. If the expression evaluates successfully,
XLISP prints the result of the evaluation and then returns to the
initial prompt waiting for another expression to be typed.
Input can be aborted at any time by typing the CONTROL-G key (it may
be necessary to follow CONTROL-G by RETURN).
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 6
BREAK COMMAND LOOP
4 BREAK COMMAND LOOP
When XLISP encounters an error while evaluating an expression, it
attempts to handle the error in the following way:
If the symbol '*breakenable*' is true, the message corresponding to
the error is printed. If the error is correctable, the correction
message is printed. If the symbol '*tracenable*' is true, a trace
back is printed. The number of entries printed depends on the value
of the symbol '*tracelimit*'. If this symbol is set to something
other than a number, the entire trace back stack is printed. XLISP
then enters a read/eval/print loop to allow the user to examine the
state of the interpreter in the context of the error. This loop
differs from the normal top-leval read/eval/print loop in that if the
user invokes the function 'continue' XLISP will continue from a
correctable error. If the user invokes the function 'quit' XLISP will
abort the break loop and return to the top level or the next lower
numbered break loop. When in a break loop, XLISP prefixes the break
level to the normal prompt.
If the symbol '*breakenable*' is nil, XLISP looks for a surrounding
errset function. If one is found, XLISP examines the value of the
print flag. If this flag is true, the error message is printed. In
any case, XLISP causes the errset function call to return nil.
If there is no surrounding errset function, XLISP prints the error
message and returns to the top level.
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 7
DATA TYPES
5 DATA TYPES
There are several different data types available to XLISP programmers.
o lists
o symbols
o strings
o integers
o floats
o objects
o file pointers
o subrs (built-in functions)
o fsubrs (special forms)
Another data type is the stream. A stream is a list node whose car
points to the head of a list of integers and whose cdr points to the
last list node of the list. An empty stream is a list node whose car
and cdr are nil. Each of the integers in the list represents a
character in the stream. When a character is read from a stream, the
first integer from the head of the list is removed and returned. When
a character is written to a stream, the integer representing the
character code of the character is appended to the end of the list.
When a function indicates that it takes an input source as a
parameter, this parameter can either be an input file pointer or a
stream. Similarly, when a function indicates that it takes an output
sink as a parameter, this parameter can either be an output file
pointer or a stream.
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 8
THE EVALUATOR
6 THE EVALUATOR
The process of evaluation in XLISP:
o Integers, floats, strings, file pointers, subrs, fsubrs and
objects evaluate to themselves
o Symbols evaluate to the value associated with their current
binding
o Lists are evaluated by evaluating the first element of the
list and then taking one of the following actions:
o If it is a subr, the remaining list elements are
evaluated and the subr is called with these evaluated
expressions as arguments.
o If it is an fsubr, the fsubr is called using the
remaining list elements as arguments (unevaluated)
o If it is a list:
1. If the list is a function closure (a list whose car
is a lambda expression and whose cdr is an
environment list), the car of the list is used as the
function to be applied and the cdr is used as the
environment to be extended with the parameter
bindings.
2. If the list is a lambda expression, the current
environment is used for the function application.
3. In either of the above two cases, the remaining list
elements are evaluated and the resulting expressions
are bound to the formal arguments of the lambda
expression. The body of the function is executed
within this new binding environment.
o If it is a list and the car of the list is 'macro', the
remaining list elements are bound to the formal arguments
of the macro expression. The body of the function is
executed within this new binding environment. The result
of this evaluation is considered the macro expansion.
This result is then evaluated in place of the original
expression.
o If it is an object, the second list element is evaluated
and used as a message selector. The message formed by
combining the selector with the values of the remaining
list elements is sent to the object.
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 9
LEXICAL CONVENTIONS
7 LEXICAL CONVENTIONS
The following conventions are followed when entering XLISP programs:
Comments in XLISP code begin with a semi-colon character and continue
to the end of the line.
Symbol names in XLISP can consist of any sequence of non-blank
printable characters except the following:
( ) ' ` , " ;
Uppercase and lowercase characters are not distinguished within symbol
names. All lowercase characters are mapped to uppercase on input.
Integer literals consist of a sequence of digits optionally beginning
with a '+' or '-'. The range of values an integer can represent is
limited by the size of a C 'long' on the machine on which XLISP is
running.
Floating point literals consist of a sequence of digits optionally
beginning with a '+' or '-' and including an embedded decimal point.
The range of values a floating point number can represent is limited
by the size of a C 'float' ('double' on machines with 32 bit
addresses) on the machine on which XLISP is running.
Literal strings are sequences of characters surrounded by double
quotes. Within quoted strings the '\' character is used to allow
non-printable characters to be included. The codes recognized are:
\\ means the character '\'
\n means newline
\t means tab
\r means return
\e means escape
\nnn means the character whose octal code is nnn
XLISP defines several useful read macros:
'<expr> == (quote <expr>)
#'<expr> == (function <expr>)
`<expr> == (backquote <expr>)
,<expr> == (comma <expr>)
,@<expr> == (comma-at <expr>)
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 10
OBJECTS
8 OBJECTS
Definitions:
o selector - a symbol used to select an appropriate method
o message - a selector and a list of actual arguments
o method - the code that implements a message
Since XLISP was created to provide a simple basis for experimenting
with object oriented programming, one of the primitive data types
included is 'object'. In XLISP, an object consists of a data
structure containing a pointer to the object's class as well as a list
containing the values of the object's instance variables.
Officially, there is no way to see inside an object (look at the
values of its instance variables). The only way to communicate with
an object is by sending it a message. When the XLISP evaluator
evaluates a list the value of whose first element is an object, it
interprets the value of the second element of the list (which must be
a symbol) as the message selector. The evaluator determines the class
of the receiving object and attempts to find a method corresponding to
the message selector in the set of messages defined for that class.
If the message is not found in the object's class and the class has a
super-class, the search continues by looking at the messages defined
for the super-class. This process continues from one super-class to
the next until a method for the message is found. If no method is
found, an error occurs.
When a method is found, the evaluator binds the receiving object to
the symbol 'self', binds the class in which the method was found to
the symbol 'msgclass', and evaluates the method using the remaining
elements of the original list as arguments to the method. These
arguments are always evaluated prior to being bound to their
corresponding formal arguments. The result of evaluating the method
becomes the result of the expression.
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 11
OBJECTS
8.1 THE 'Object' CLASS
Classes:
Object THE TOP OF THE CLASS HEIRARCHY
Messages:
:show SHOW AN OBJECT'S INSTANCE VARIABLES
returns the object
:class RETURN THE CLASS OF AN OBJECT
returns the class of the object
:isnew THE DEFAULT OBJECT INITIALIZATION ROUTINE
returns the object
:sendsuper <sel> [<args>]... SEND SUPERCLASS A MESSAGE
<sel> the message selector
<args> the message arguments
returns the result of sending the message
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 12
OBJECTS
8.2 THE 'Class' CLASS
Class THE CLASS OF ALL OBJECT CLASSES (including itself)
Messages:
:new CREATE A NEW INSTANCE OF A CLASS
returns the new class object
:isnew <ivars> [<cvars>[<super>]] INITIALIZE A NEW CLASS
<ivars> the list of instance variables
<cvars> the list of class variables (default is nil)
<super> the superclass (default is Object)
returns the new class object
:answer <msg> <fargs> <code> ADD A MESSAGE TO A CLASS
<msg> the message symbol
<fargs> the formal argument list
this list is of the form:
([<farg>]...
[&optional [<oarg>]...]
[&rest <rarg>]
[&aux [<aux>]...])
where
<farg> a formal argument
<oarg> an optional argument (default is nil)
<rarg> bound to the rest of the arguments
<aux> a auxiliary variable (set to nil)
<code> a list of executable expressions
returns the object
When a new instance of a class is created by sending the message
':new' to an existing class, the message ':isnew' followed by whatever
parameters were passed to the ':new' message is sent to the newly
created object.
When a new class is created by sending the ':new' message to the
object 'Class', an optional parameter may be specified indicating the
superclass of the new class. If this parameter is omitted, the new
class will be a subclass of 'Object'. A class inherits all instance
variables, class variables, and methods from its super-class.
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 13
SYMBOLS
9 SYMBOLS
o self - the current object (within a message context)
o msgclass - the class in which the current method was found
o *oblist* - the object list
o *keylist* - the keyword list
o *standard-input* - the standard input file
o *standard-output* - the standard output file
o *breakenable* - flag controlling entering the break loop on
errors
o *tracenable* - flag controlling trace back printout on errors
and breaks
o *tracelimit* - maximum number of levels of trace back
information printed on errors and breaks
o *evalhook* - user substitute for the evaluator function
o *applyhook* - (not yet implemented)
o *unbound* - indicator for unbound symbols
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 14
FUNCTION DEFINITIONS
10 FUNCTION DEFINITIONS
10.1 EVALUATION FUNCTIONS
(eval <expr>) EVALUATE AN XLISP EXPRESSION
<expr> the expression to be evaluated
returns the result of evaluating the expression
(apply <fun> <args>) APPLY A FUNCTION TO A LIST OF ARGUMENTS
<fun> the function to apply (or function symbol)
<args> the argument list
returns the result of applying the function to the argument list
(funcall <fun> [<arg>]...) CALL A FUNCTION WITH ARGUMENTS
<fun> the function to call (or function symbol)
<arg> arguments to pass to the function
returns the result of calling the function with the arguments
(quote <expr>) RETURN AN EXPRESSION UNEVALUATED
<expr> the expression to be quoted (quoted)
returns <expr> unevaluated
(function <expr>) QUOTE A FUNCTION
<expr> the function to be quoted (quoted)
returns a function closure
(backquote <expr>) FILL IN A TEMPLATE
<expr> the template
returns a copy of the template with comma and comma-at expressions
expanded (see the Common Lisp reference manual)
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 15
SYMBOL FUNCTIONS
10.2 SYMBOL FUNCTIONS
(set <sym> <expr>) SET THE VALUE OF A SYMBOL
<sym> the symbol being set
<expr> the new value
returns the new value
(setq [<sym> <expr>]...) SET THE VALUE OF A SYMBOL
<sym> the symbol being set (quoted)
<expr> the new value
returns the new value
(setf [<place> <expr>]...) SET THE VALUE OF A FIELD
<place> the field specifier (quoted):
<sym> set the value of a symbol
(car <expr>) set the car of a list node
(cdr <expr>) set the cdr of a list node
(get <sym> <prop>) set the value of a property
(symbol-value <sym>) set the value of a symbol
(symbol-plist <sym>) set the property list of a symbol
<value> the new value
returns the new value
(defun <sym> <fargs> [<expr>]...) DEFINE A FUNCTION
(defmacro <sym> <fargs> [<expr>]...) DEFINE A MACRO
<sym> symbol being defined (quoted)
<fargs> list of formal arguments (quoted)
this list is of the form:
([<farg>]...
[&optional [<oarg>]...]
[&rest <rarg>]
[&aux [<aux>]...])
where
<farg> is a formal argument
<oarg> is an optional argument (default is nil)
<rarg> bound to the rest of the arguments
<aux> is an auxiliary variable (set to nil)
<expr> expressions constituting the body of the
function (quoted)
returns the function symbol
(gensym [<tag>]) GENERATE A SYMBOL
<tag> string or number
returns the new symbol
(intern <pname>) MAKE AN INTERNED SYMBOL
<pname> the symbol's print name string
returns the new symbol
(make-symbol <pname>) MAKE AN UNINTERNED SYMBOL
<pname> the symbol's print name string
returns the new symbol
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 16
SYMBOL FUNCTIONS
(symbol-name <sym>) GET THE PRINT NAME OF A SYMBOL
<sym> the symbol
returns the symbol's print name
(symbol-value <sym>) GET THE VALUE OF A SYMBOL
<sym> the symbol
returns the symbol's value
(symbol-plist <sym>) GET THE PROPERTY LIST OF A SYMBOL
<sym> the symbol
returns the symbol's property list
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 17
PROPERTY LIST FUNCTIONS
10.3 PROPERTY LIST FUNCTIONS
(get <sym> <prop>) GET THE VALUE OF A PROPERTY
<sym> the symbol
<prop> the property symbol
returns the property value or nil
(putprop <sym> <val> <prop>) PUT A PROPERTY ONTO THE PROPERTY LIST
<sym> the symbol
<val> the property value
<prop> the property symbol
returns nil
(remprop <sym> <prop>) REMOVE A PROPERTY
<sym> the symbol
<prop> the property symbol
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 18
LIST FUNCTIONS
10.4 LIST FUNCTIONS
(car <expr>) RETURN THE CAR OF A LIST NODE
<expr> the list node
returns the car of the list node
(cdr <expr>) RETURN THE CDR OF A LIST NODE
<expr> the list node
returns the cdr of the list node
(caar <expr>) == (car (car <expr>))
(cadr <expr>) == (car (cdr <expr>))
(cdar <expr>) == (cdr (car <expr>))
(cddr <expr>) == (cdr (cdr <expr>))
(cons <expr1> <expr2>) CONSTRUCT A NEW LIST NODE
<expr1> the car of the new list node
<expr2> the cdr of the new list node
returns the new list node
(list [<expr>]...) CREATE A LIST OF VALUES
<expr> expressions to be combined into a list
returns the new list
(append [<expr>]...) APPEND LISTS
<expr> lists whose elements are to be appended
returns the new list
(reverse <expr>) REVERSE A LIST
<expr> the list to reverse
returns a new list in the reverse order
(last <list>) RETURN THE LAST LIST NODE OF A LIST
<list> the list
returns the last list node in the list
(member <expr> <list> [<key> <test>]) FIND AN EXPRESSION IN A LIST
<expr> the expression to find
<list> the list to search
<key> the keyword :test or :test-not
<test> the test function (defaults to eql)
returns the remainder of the list starting with the expression
(assoc <expr> <alist> [<key> <test>]) FIND AN EXPRESSION IN AN A-LIST
<expr> the expression to find
<alist> the association list
<key> the keyword :test or :test-not
<test> the test function (defaults to eql)
returns the alist entry or nil
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 19
LIST FUNCTIONS
(remove <expr> <list> [<key> <test>]) REMOVE AN EXPRESSION FROM A LIST
<expr> the expression to delete
<list> the list
<key> the keyword :test or :test-not
<test> the test function (defaults to eql)
returns the list with the matching expressions deleted
(length <expr>) FIND THE LENGTH OF A LIST OR STRING
<expr> the list or string
returns the length of the list or string
(nth <n> <list>) RETURN THE NTH ELEMENT OF A LIST
<n> the number of the element to return (zero origin)
<list> the list
returns the nth element or nil if the list isn't that long
(nthcdr <n> <list>) RETURN THE NTH CDR OF A LIST
<n> the number of the element to return (zero origin)
<list> the list
returns the nth cdr or nil if the list isn't that long
(mapc <fcn> <list1> [<list>]...) APPLY FUNCTION TO SUCCESSIVE CARS
<fcn> the function or function name
<listn> a list for each argument of the function
returns the first list of arguments
(mapcar <fcn> <list1> [<list>]...) APPLY FUNCTION TO SUCCESSIVE CARS
<fcn> the function or function name
<listn> a list for each argument of the function
returns the list of values returned by each function invocation
(mapl <fcn> <list1> [<list>]...) APPLY FUNCTION TO SUCCESSIVE CDRS
<fcn> the function or function name
<listn> a list for each argument of the function
returns the first list of arguments
(maplist <fcn> <list1> [<list>]...) APPLY FUNCTION TO SUCCESSIVE CDRS
<fcn> the function or function name
<listn> a list for each argument of the function
returns the list of values returned by each function invocation
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 20
LIST FUNCTIONS
(subst <to> <from> <expr> [<key> <test>]) SUBSTITUTE EXPRESSIONS
<to> the new expression
<from> the old expression
<expr> the expression in which to do the substitutions
<key> the keyword :test or :test-not
<test> the test function (defaults to eql)
returns the expression with substitutions
(sublis <alist> <expr> [<key> <test>]) SUBSTITUTE USING AN A-LIST
<alist> the association list
<expr> the expression in which to do the substitutions
<key> the keyword :test or :test-not
<test> the test function (defaults to eql)
returns the expression with substitutions
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 21
DESTRUCTIVE LIST FUNCTIONS
10.5 DESTRUCTIVE LIST FUNCTIONS
(rplaca <list> <expr>) REPLACE THE CAR OF A LIST NODE
<list> the list node
<expr> the new value for the car of the list node
returns the list node after updating the car
(rplacd <list> <expr>) REPLACE THE CDR OF A LIST NODE
<list> the list node
<expr> the new value for the cdr of the list node
returns the list node after updating the cdr
(nconc [<list>]...) DESTRUCTIVELY CONCATENATE LISTS
<list> lists to concatenate
returns the result of concatenating the lists
(delete <expr> <list> [<key> <test>]) DELETE AN EXPRESSION FROM A LIST
<expr> the expression to delete
<list> the list
<key> the keyword :test or :test-not
<test> the test function (defaults to eql)
returns the list with the matching expressions deleted
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 22
PREDICATE FUNCTIONS
10.6 PREDICATE FUNCTIONS
(atom <expr>) IS THIS AN ATOM?
<expr> the expression to check
returns t if the value is an atom, nil otherwise
(symbolp <expr>) IS THIS A SYMBOL?
<expr> the expression to check
returns t if the expression is a symbol, nil otherwise
(numberp <expr>) IS THIS A NUMBER?
<expr> the expression to check
returns t if the expression is a number, nil otherwise
(null <expr>) IS THIS AN EMPTY LIST?
<expr> the list to check
returns t if the list is empty, nil otherwise
(not <expr>) IS THIS FALSE?
<expr> the expression to check
return t if the expression is nil, nil otherwise
(listp <expr>) IS THIS A LIST?
<expr> the expression to check
returns t if the value is a list node or nil, nil otherwise
(consp <expr>) IS THIS A NON-EMPTY LIST?
<expr> the expression to check
returns t if the value is a list node, nil otherwise
(boundp <sym>) IS THIS A BOUND SYMBOL?
<sym> the symbol
returns t if a value is bound to the symbol, nil otherwise
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 23
PREDICATE FUNCTIONS
(minusp <expr>) IS THIS NUMBER NEGATIVE?
<expr> the number to test
returns t if the number is negative, nil otherwise
(zerop <expr>) IS THIS NUMBER ZERO?
<expr> the number to test
returns t if the number is zero, nil otherwise
(plusp <expr>) IS THIS NUMBER POSITIVE?
<expr> the number to test
returns t if the number is positive, nil otherwise
(evenp <expr>) IS THIS NUMBER EVEN?
<expr> the number to test
returns t if the number is even, nil otherwise
(oddp <expr>) IS THIS NUMBER ODD?
<expr> the number to test
returns t if the number is odd, nil otherwise
(eq <expr1> <expr2>) ARE THE EXPRESSIONS IDENTICAL?
<expr1> the first expression
<expr2> the second expression
returns t if they are equal, nil otherwise
(eql <expr1> <expr2>) ARE THE EXPRESSIONS IDENTICAL?
(WORKS WITH NUMBERS AND STRINGS)
<expr1> the first expression
<expr2> the second expression
returns t if they are equal, nil otherwise
(equal <expr1> <expr2>) ARE THE EXPRESSIONS EQUAL?
<expr1> the first expression
<expr2> the second expression
returns t if they are equal, nil otherwise
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 24
CONTROL FUNCTIONS
10.7 CONTROL FUNCTIONS
(cond [<pair>]...) EVALUATE CONDITIONALLY
<pair> pair consisting of:
(<pred> [<expr>]...)
where
<pred> is a predicate expression
<expr> evaluated if the predicate
is not nil
returns the value of the first expression whose predicate
is not nil
(and [<expr>]...) THE LOGICAL AND OF A LIST OF EXPRESSIONS
<expr> the expressions to be ANDed
returns nil if any expression evaluates to nil,
otherwise the value of the last expression
(evaluation of expressions stops after the first
expression that evaluates to nil)
(or [<expr>]...) THE LOGICAL OR OF A LIST OF EXPRESSIONS
<expr> the expressions to be ORed
returns nil if all expressions evaluate to nil,
otherwise the value of the first non-nil expression
(evaluation of expressions stops after the first
expression that does not evaluate to nil)
(if <texpr> <expr1> [<expr2>]) EXECUTE EXPRESSIONS CONDITIONALLY
<texpr> the test expression
<expr1> the expression to be evaluated if texpr is non-nil
<expr2> the expression to be evaluated if texpr is nil
returns the value of the selected expression
(let ([<binding>]...) [<expr>]...) BIND SYMBOLS AND EVALUATE EXPRESSIONS
(let* ([<binding>]...) [<expr>]...) LET WITH SEQUENTIAL BINDING
<binding> the variable bindings each of which is either:
1) a symbol (which is initialized to nil)
2) a list whose car is a symbol and whose cadr
is an initialization expression
<expr> the expressions to be evaluated
returns the value of the last expression
(catch <sym> [<expr>]...) EVALUATE EXPRESSIONS AND CATCH THROWS
<sym> the catch tag
<expr> expressions to evaluate
returns the value of the last expression the throw expression
(throw <sym> [<expr>]) THROW TO A CATCH
<sym> the catch tag
<expr> the value for the catch to return (defaults to nil)
returns never returns
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 25
LOOPING FUNCTIONS
10.8 LOOPING FUNCTIONS
(do ([<binding>]...) (<texpr> [<rexpr>]...) [<expr>]...)
(do* ([<binding>]...) (<texpr> [<rexpr>]...) [<expr>]...)
<binding> the variable bindings each of which is either:
1) a symbol (which is initialized to nil)
2) a list of the form: (<sym> <init> [<step>])
where:
<sym> is the symbol to bind
<init> is the initial value of the symbol
<step> is a step expression
<texpr> the termination test expression
<rexpr> result expressions (the default is nil)
<expr> the body of the loop (treated like an implicit prog)
returns the value of the last result expression
(dolist (<sym> <expr> [<rexpr>]) [<expr>]...) LOOP THROUGH A LIST
<sym> the symbol to bind to each list element
<expr> the list expression
<rexpr> the result expression (the default is nil)
<expr> the body of the loop (treated like an implicit prog)
(dotimes (<sym> <expr> [<rexpr>]) [<expr>]...) LOOP FROM ZERO TO N-1
<sym> the symbol to bind to each value from 0 to n-1
<expr> the number of times to loop
<rexpr> the result expression (the default is nil)
<expr> the body of the loop (treated like an implicit prog)
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 26
THE PROGRAM FEATURE
10.9 THE PROGRAM FEATURE
(prog ([<binding>]...) [<expr>]...) THE PROGRAM FEATURE
(prog* ([<binding>]...) [<expr>]...) PROG WITH SEQUENTIAL BINDING
<binding> the variable bindings each of which is either:
1) a symbol (which is initialized to nil)
2) a list whose car is a symbol and whose cadr
is an initialization expression
<expr> expressions to evaluate or tags (symbols)
returns nil or the argument passed to the return function
(go <sym>) GO TO A TAG WITHIN A PROG CONSTRUCT
<sym> the tag (quoted)
returns never returns
(return [<expr>]) CAUSE A PROG CONSTRUCT TO RETURN A VALUE
<expr> the value (defaults to nil)
returns never returns
(prog1 <expr1> [<expr>]...) EXECUTE EXPRESSIONS SEQUENTIALLY
<expr1> the first expression to evaluate
<expr> the remaining expressions to evaluate
returns the value of the first expression
(prog2 <expr1> <expr2> [<expr>]...) EXECUTE EXPRESSIONS SEQUENTIALLY
<expr1> the first expression to evaluate
<expr2> the second expression to evaluate
<expr> the remaining expressions to evaluate
returns the value of the second expression
(progn [<expr>]...) EXECUTE EXPRESSIONS SEQUENTIALLY
<expr> the expressions to evaluate
returns the value of the last expression (or nil)
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 27
DEBUGGING AND ERROR HANDLING
10.10 DEBUGGING AND ERROR HANDLING
(error <emsg> [<arg>]) SIGNAL A NON-CORRECTABLE ERROR
<emsg> the error message string
<arg> the argument expression (printed after the message)
returns never returns
(cerror <cmsg> <emsg> [<arg>]) SIGNAL A CORRECTABLE ERROR
<cmsg> the continue message string
<emsg> the error message string
<arg> the argument expression (printed after the message)
returns nil when continued from the break loop
(break [<bmsg> [<arg>]]) ENTER A BREAK LOOP
<bmsg> the break message string (defaults to "**BREAK**")
<arg> the argument expression (printed after the message)
returns nil when continued from the break loop
(clean-up) CLEAN-UP AFTER AN ERROR
returns never returns
(continue) CONTINUE FROM A CORRECTABLE ERROR
returns never returns
(errset <expr> [<pflag>]) TRAP ERRORS
<expr> the expression to execute
<pflag> flag to control printing of the error message
returns the value of the last expression consed with nil
or nil on error
(baktrace [<n>]) PRINT N LEVELS OF TRACE BACK INFORMATION
<n> the number of levels (defaults to all levels)
returns nil
(evalhook <expr> <ehook> <ahook>) EVALUATE AN EXPRESSION WITH HOOKS
<expr> the expression to evaluate
<ehook> the value for *evalhook*
<ahook> the value for *applyhook*
returns the result of evaluating the expression
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 28
ARITHMETIC FUNCTIONS
10.11 ARITHMETIC FUNCTIONS
(truncate <expr>) TRUNCATES A FLOATING POINT NUMBER TO AN INTEGER
<expr> the number
returns the result of truncating the number
(float <expr>) CONVERTS AN INTEGER TO A FLOATING POINT NUMBER
<expr> the number
returns the result of floating the integer
(+ <expr>...) ADD A LIST OF NUMBERS
<expr> the numbers
returns the result of the addition
(- <expr>...) SUBTRACT A LIST OF NUMBERS OR NEGATE A SINGLE NUMBER
<expr> the numbers
returns the result of the subtraction
(* <expr>...) MULTIPLY A LIST OF NUMBERS
<expr> the numbers
returns the result of the multiplication
(/ <expr>...) DIVIDE A LIST OF NUMBERS
<expr> the numbers
returns the result of the division
(1+ <expr>) ADD ONE TO A NUMBER
<expr> the number
returns the number plus one
(1- <expr>) SUBTRACT ONE FROM A NUMBER
<expr> the number
returns the number minus one
(rem <expr>...) REMAINDER OF A LIST OF NUMBERS
<expr> the numbers
returns the result of the remainder operation
(min <expr>...) THE SMALLEST OF A LIST OF NUMBERS
<expr> the expressions to be checked
returns the smallest number in the list
(max <expr>...) THE LARGEST OF A LIST OF NUMBERS
<expr> the expressions to be checked
returns the largest number in the list
(abs <expr>) THE ABSOLUTE VALUE OF A NUMBER
<expr> the number
returns the absolute value of the number
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 29
ARITHMETIC FUNCTIONS
(sin <expr>) COMPUTE THE SINE OF A NUMBER
<expr> the floating point number
returns the sine of the number
(cos <expr>) COMPUTE THE COSINE OF A NUMBER
<expr> the floating point number
returns the cosine of the number
(tan <expr>) COMPUTE THE TANGENT OF A NUMBER
<expr> the floating point number
returns the tangent of the number
(expt <x-expr> <y-expr>) COMPUTE X TO THE Y POWER
<x-expr> the floating point number
<y-expr> the floating point exponent
returns x to the y power
(exp <x-expr>) COMPUTE E TO THE X POWER
<x-expr> the floating point number
returns e to the x power
(sqrt <expr>) COMPUTE THE SQUARE ROOT OF A NUMBER
<expr> the floating point number
returns the square root of the number
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 30
BITWISE LOGICAL FUNCTIONS
10.12 BITWISE LOGICAL FUNCTIONS
(bit-and <expr>...) THE BITWISE AND OF A LIST OF NUMBERS
<expr> the numbers
returns the result of the and operation
(bit-ior <expr>...) THE BITWISE INCLUSIVE OR OF A LIST OF NUMBERS
<expr> the numbers
returns the result of the inclusive or operation
(bit-xor <expr>...) THE BITWISE EXCLUSIVE OR OF A LIST OF NUMBERS
<expr> the numbers
returns the result of the exclusive or operation
(bit-not <expr>) THE BITWISE NOT OF A NUMBER
<expr> the number
returns the bitwise inversion of number
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 31
RELATIONAL FUNCTIONS
10.13 RELATIONAL FUNCTIONS
The relational functions can be used to compare integers, floating
point numbers or strings.
(< <e1> <e2>) TEST FOR LESS THAN
<e1> the left operand of the comparison
<e2> the right operand of the comparison
returns the result of comparing <e1> with <e2>
(<= <e1> <e2>) TEST FOR LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO
<e1> the left operand of the comparison
<e2> the right operand of the comparison
returns the result of comparing <e1> with <e2>
(= <e1> <e2>) TEST FOR EQUAL TO
<e1> the left operand of the comparison
<e2> the right operand of the comparison
returns the result of comparing <e1> with <e2>
(/= <e1> <e2>) TEST FOR NOT EQUAL TO
<e1> the left operand of the comparison
<e2> the right operand of the comparison
returns the result of comparing <e1> with <e2>
(>= <e1> <e2>) TEST FOR GREATER THAN OR EQUAL TO
<e1> the left operand of the comparison
<e2> the right operand of the comparison
returns the result of comparing <e1> with <e2>
(> <e1> <e2>) TEST FOR GREATER THAN
<e1> the left operand of the comparison
<e2> the right operand of the comparison
returns the result of comparing <e1> with <e2>
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 32
STRING FUNCTIONS
10.14 STRING FUNCTIONS
(char <string> <index>) EXTRACT A CHARACTER FROM A STRING
<string> the string
<index> the string index (zero relative)
returns the ascii code of the first character
(string <expr>) MAKE A STRING FROM AN INTEGER ASCII VALUE
<expr> the numeric expression
returns a one character string whose first character is <expr>
(strcat [<expr>]...) CONCATENATE STRINGS
<expr> the strings to concatenate
returns the result of concatenating the strings
(substr <expr> <sexpr> [<lexpr>]) EXTRACT A SUBSTRING
<expr> the string
<sexpr> the starting position
<lexpr> the length (default is rest of string)
returns substring starting at <sexpr> for <lexpr>
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 33
INPUT/OUTPUT FUNCTIONS
10.15 INPUT/OUTPUT FUNCTIONS
(read [<source> [<eof>]]) READ AN XLISP EXPRESSION
<source> the input source (default is standard input)
<eof> the value to return on end of file (default is nil)
returns the expression read
(print <expr> [<sink>]) PRINT A LIST OF VALUES ON A NEW LINE
<expr> the expressions to be printed
<sink> the output sink (default is standard output)
returns the expression
(prin1 <expr> [<sink>]) PRINT A LIST OF VALUES
<expr> the expressions to be printed
<sink> the output sink (default is standard output)
returns the expression
(princ <expr> [<sink>]) PRINT A LIST OF VALUES WITHOUT QUOTING
<expr> the expressions to be printed
<sink> the output sink (default is standard output)
returns the expression
(terpri [<sink>]) TERMINATE THE CURRENT PRINT LINE
<sink> the output sink (default is standard output)
returns nil
(flatsize <expr>) LENGTH OF PRINTED REPRESENTATION USING PRIN1
<expr> the expression
returns the length
(flatc <expr>) LENGTH OF PRINTED REPRESENTATION USING PRINC
<expr> the expression
returns the length
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 34
FILE I/O FUNCTIONS
10.16 FILE I/O FUNCTIONS
(openi <fname>) OPEN AN INPUT FILE
<fname> the file name string
returns a file pointer
(openo <fname>) OPEN AN OUTPUT FILE
<fname> the file name string
returns a file pointer
(close <fp>) CLOSE A FILE
<fp> the file pointer
returns nil
(read-char [<source>]) READ A CHARACTER FROM A FILE OR STREAM
<source> the input source (default is standard input)
returns the character (integer)
(peek-char [<flag> [<source>]]) PEEK AT THE NEXT CHARACTER
<flag> flag for skipping white space (default is nil)
<source> the input source (default is standard input)
returns the character (integer)
(write-char <ch> [<sink>]) WRITE A CHARACTER TO A FILE OR STREAM
<ch> the character to put (integer)
<sink> the output sink (default is standard output)
returns the character (integer)
(read-line [<source>]) READ A LINE FROM A FILE OR STREAM
<source> the input source (default is standard input)
returns the input string
XLISP: An Experimental Object Oriented Language Page 35
SYSTEM FUNCTIONS
10.17 SYSTEM FUNCTIONS
(load <fname> [<vflag> [<pflag>]]) LOAD AN XLISP SOURCE FILE
<fname> the filename string (in double quotes)
<vflag> the verbose flag (default is t)
<pflag> the print flag (default is nil)
returns the filename
(gc) FORCE GARBAGE COLLECTION
returns nil
(expand <num>) EXPAND MEMORY BY ADDING SEGMENTS
<num> the number of segments to add
returns the number of segments added
(alloc <num>) CHANGE NUMBER OF NODES TO ALLOCATE IN EACH SEGMENT
<num> the number of nodes to allocate
returns the old number of nodes to allocate
(mem) SHOW MEMORY ALLOCATION STATISTICS
returns nil
(type-of <expr>) RETURNS THE TYPE OF THE EXPRESSION
<expr> the expression to return the type of
returns nil if the value is nil otherwise one of the symbols:
:SYMBOL for symbols
:OBJECT for objects
:CONS for list nodes
:SUBR for subroutines with evaluated arguments
:FSUBR for subroutines with unevaluated arguments
:STRING for string nodes
:FIXNUM for integer nodes
:FLONUM for floating point nodes
:FILE for file pointer nodes
(exit) EXIT XLISP
returns never returns